The temple, conceived as a dwelling place for
the deity, evolved from the Mycenean megaron,
a rectangular hall with a circular hearth in the
center that characterized the first type of Mycenean
houses. Inside the Mycenean palace, the megaron
was a large hall with portico formed by the projecting
side-walls of the hall and ornamented in front
with two columns. It functioned as audience chamber,
reception hall, council chamber, feasting place
and religous centre for the ruler.
The
temple housed the statue of the god or goddess to
whom it was dedicated. Some temples were dedicated
to more than one divinity.
As a rule a Greek temple faced east.
Temple
in antis or distyle in
antis ( "di" = two, "stylos"
= column, "anta" = pilaster, which
means "with two columns in between
the antae at the end of the cella walls")
is the simplest form of Greek temple in
which the naos (cella) is preceded by a
pronaos (antechamber) with two columns flanked
by forward projections (antea) of its side
walls.
Prostyle temple where the
facade forms a colonnade made up of four
or six columns. The temple is tetrastyle
if it comprises four columns or hexastyle
if it comprises six columns (Temple of Zeus
Olympios in Priene,
Temples of Dionysos, Hera, Asclepios in
Pergamum).
Amphiprostyle temple has
a similar row of columns on the rear end.
The opisthodome (opposite of the pronaos),
found for the first time in the Temple of
Athena in Priene
and reproduced at the beginning of the 3C
BC in the Temple of Artemis in Sardis,
became thereafter a characteristic element
of the Anatolian sanctuaries.
Peripteral temple became
the classical form most commonly used in
large-scale temple architecture in which
the cella was surrounded on all four sides
by a colonnade or peristyle (Temple of Athena
in Priene,
Temple of Dionysos in Teos,
Temple of Zeus in Euromos,
Temple of Athena in Assos)
Dipteral temple has a double
row of columns on all four sites (Artemision
in Ephesus, Didymeion
in Didyma).
Pseudodipteral temple:
the inner colonnade of the dipteros has
been suppressed. Instead a promenade gallery
runs around the naos. The outer colonnade
comprises less columns. This type became
the model temple and prevailed during the
Hellenistic
and Roman period
(Temple of Artemis in Sardis,
Temple of Zeus in Aizanoi).
The Greeks developed three architectural systems
called Doric, Ionic
and Corinthianorders,
each with their own distinctive proportions and
detailing. The column is the most significant element
because it defines the general proportions (module
= ratio between the height and the width, defined
by the semi-diameter of the shaft of the column
in its lowest part). One recognizes the order by
the shape of the capitals.
In
the Doric order, the shaft of the
column, which tapers towards the top and
has between 16 and 20 flutings, stands without
a base on the Stylobate, which is the uppermost
step (of 3 or more steps) of a platform
called Crepidoma. The capital consists of
the Echinus and the quadrangular Abacus
and carries the architrave with its Frieze.
In Doric order the frieze is made up of
metopes, plain, smooth stone sections (sometimes
filled with sculpture) between the triglyphs
carved with a pattern of three plane vertical
arrises, survival of the wooden structure
of primitive temples. The triangular pediment
is ornemented with acroteriums.
The
Ionic order has slenderer and gentler
forms than the Doric male order. The crepidoma
has more steps (8, 10 or 12) and the column
now stands on a base. The flutings of the
columns are separated by narrow ridges.
The Ionic capital, which is a Greek transformation
of the Aeolic capital (Aeolia),
has typical volutes on either side. The
architrave is made up of three superposed
flat sections. The frieze is continuous,
without triglyphs to divide it up. This
order appeared for the first time in the
6C BC in the Greek centers of Ionia (western
Asia Minor).
Aeolic capital
The
Corinthian order is similar
to the Ionic except in the form of the capital.
Its characteristic feature is the acanthus
leaves which enclose the circular slender
body of the capital. This order was much
favoured by the Romans
who combined the volutes of the Ionic to
the acanthus leaves of the Corinthian orders,
creating the composite order.
Greek
theatre
Greek theatre has its origins in the festivals given
in honor of Dionysos, the god of
wine and vegetation. The first festivals were held
(in Athens) in the 6C BC in the form of ritual ceremonies
and dithyrambs (hymns sang by a chorus)
which later developed into tragedy. These festivals
gave rive to competitions rewarded by prizes.
The first theatres consisted of a large circle known
as orchestra (the dancing circle)
in the middle of which stood the altar of Dionysos.
All elements of the theatre were made of wood, and
dismantled at the end of the festival. For the spectators,
the “viewing area”, or theatron
(theatre is derived from theatron) was carved in
tiers out of the slope of a hill, thus forming a
natural hemicycle extending round more than half
the orchestra and providing remarkable acoustics.
The spectators entered the theatre through the two
lateral paradoi (plural of parados)
which also provided access to the chorus and some
actors to the orchestra. The first row of seats
was reserved for the priests, judges and dignitaries.
A walkway called diazoma ran round
between the upper and lower tiers of seats. Radial
stairways divided the theatron into kerkides.
Tragedy was performed by a chorus
of 12 or 15 members and comedy
by a chorus of 24 members all wearing an appropriate
mask. All of the roles were played by men.
In the 5C BC, the prominence of the individual
actors (2 to 3 in tragedy, unlimited in
comedy) increased and the chorus was now engaged
in dialogue. The Greek playwrights like Aeschylus,
Sophocles , Euripides for tragedy, and Aristophanes
for comedy, not only wrote and frequently acted
in their plays but also served as directors and
choreographers. A proskenion, a
sort of portico forming a backdrop, and a skene,
or stage building, were added at the rear of the
orchestra. In addition to its functions as dressing
room, storage area, and architectural background,
it concealed the actors, who entered the stage through
its three doors. Scenery painted on panels attached
to the skene and machinery for special effects started
to be used.
The first stone theatres appeared in the 4C BC and
the structure of the theatre continued to evolve.
The playwright no longer controlled all the production.
The Greek theatre had become a professional institution
with specialists responsible for the various aspects
of theatrical art. The religious character of the
theatre diminished against its entertaining and
aesthetic value.
By the 2C BC, during the Hellenistic
Period, a raised stage, called logeion
or "speaking place", was added to the
building, where most of the acting took place. The
orchestra was then a little more than a semicircle.
From 3C BC, Greek Theatre was familiar to the Romans
who brought it to Rome and translated the plays
into Latin. However the first stone theatre was
built in Rome only in 55 B.C..
The Romans changed the basic structure of the Greek
theatre. Although Roman theater architecture was
based on Greek models, the use of the arch enabled
the Romans to build immense, free-standing open-air
theaters that could be covered by huge awnings.
On rugged ground, Roman architects, like their Greek
predecessors, carved their theatres out of the hillside,
but on flat ground the seating area which they called
cavea or auditorium
was typically supported by two or more tiers of
Roman arches and was surrounded by an arcade. The
orchestra, as well as the cavea,
were reduced to a semicircle. Access to the orchestra
and cavea was made through lateral vomitorium.
The orchestra was often used for additional seating
or sometimes flooded for aquatic spectacles. Performances
were held on a large raised stage or pulpitum
covered with a roof. It was backed by a three storied
stage building or scaena frons
which had between three and five doors and was ornemented
with numerous niches, statues, frescoes, and pediments.
Both Roman tragedy (the foremost playwright was
Seneca) and comedy (Plautus and Terence) were almost
entirely derived from Greek models. Pantomime
was another form of Roman theatre in which a single
actor, frequently changing masks and accompanied
by a chorus and orchestra, mimed and danced all
the roles. The actors were referred to as histriones
and mimes. They were mostly male but women performed
in mimes. Mimes did not wear masks. Early Roman
actors were often slaves owned by managers who offered
their performers and plays to the magistrates in
charge of the ludi, or games, at
which drama was presented. Later actors and pantomimists
were citizens who sometimes attained considerable
fame and fortune. If the play scripted an actor's
dying, a condemned man would take the place of the
actor at the last moment and actually be killed
on stage.
Roman
Masks – Myra
Odeon
The odeon was a small semicircular theater of the
Roman period. It was covered with roofs or awnings
and was used for musical recitals and auditions.
Roman amphitheatre
In latin “amphi” means “around” and “theatrum” means
“theatre”. In this type of building, the elliptical
cavea completely surrounded the stage space. It
was specially designed with huge arenas for the
purpose of sporting events, sea battles (naumachia),
gladiator combats, wild animal fights and hunts...
Amphitheaters were an exception in Asia Minor, probably
because the idea seemed barbaric to the autochtonous
Greeks. However Gladiator competitions, wild animal
fights could take place in a theatre but for the
safety of the spectators, some adjustments like
the removal of seats and insertion of barriers,
were needed.
Stadium
The origins of the stadium are related to the Olympic
Games, a religious festival held in Olympia every
four years in honor of Zeus. Homer's Iliad suggests
that they existed as early as the 12C BC, but the
first official Olympics dates back to 776 BC. Originally,
it was confined to foot-race (a simple activity
with religious meaning), but later other sports
were added such as the pentathlon (five different
activities), discus and javelin throwing , boxing,
wrestling, chariot racing (quadriga race)... Music
and literary competitions would also take place
during the games. Athletes usually competed nude,
proudly displaying their perfect bodies. Women,
foreigners, slaves, and dishonored persons were
not allowed to compete.
Among Greeks, the “stadion” was a unit of measurement
of 600 podes (600 times the foot of Heracles) and
the name and length of a foot-race competition.
Among Romans, the “stadium” was a unit of measurement
of 125 passus. The length of a Greek stadia (stadium)
was equivalent to approximately 185 m / 202 yards
/ 607 feet (the length of the Greek "foot"
varied by time and region).
The Greek stadium was composed of a Long and narrow
track with banked seats on each side and one semicircular
end. The dirt track had markers for the runners
in a marble strip of pavement at both ends. In Roman
times excersising and running took place within
the bath complex and the stadium was used for chariot-racing.
The track was enlarged and a spine was added in
the middle.
The Olympics and all pagan festivals were banned
in 394 AD by Roman Emperor Theodosius
I who was a Christian.
The Games were reinstated in Athens in 1896.
Hippodrome
In Greek “hippos” means “horse” and “dromos” means
“race”. A hippodrome was specially designed to hold
horse and chariot-racing. It had a wider track than
the stadium, allowing several chariots to race around
the central axis called “spina” (see the Hippodrome
in Byzantium/Constantinople).
During antiquity, the hippodrome was the main place
for exhibiting wealth and political strength.
Gymnasium and bath
The ancients believed that the human body was a
thing of beauty, and should be displayed and exercised
regularly. The Greeks developed the concept of Gymnasium,
a place of education, physical training, and social
intercourses. The Palestra was an important part
of the Gymnasium for wrestling and boxing. The Greeks
also favored the bath which could be found as an
adjunct to the Gymnasium between the palaestra
and the semicircle exedra, a place
for conversation, discourse, intellectual activities.
The Romans continued with the Greek tradition of
the gymnasium but they developed the concept of
monumental public baths or thermae
which became the center for social and recreational
activities (smaller private bathhouses were called
balneae). Most of the thermae were spacious luxury
complexes comprising sports centers, baths with
pools, libraries, odeons, gardens... They were available
to most free Romans for a reasonable fee. The vaulted
baths were heated by an ingenious invention, the
hypocaust heating system: a furnace
channeled hot air through earthenware pipes in the
walls and under the marble floor, which was raised
on pillars. The baths were supplied by aqueducts
and water channels. The bathhouses were opened to
women during the early part of the day and reserved
for men from 2:00 pm until sunset. The bathers spent
several hours in the complex. Unlike the Greeks
they seemed to wear some light covering. They began
in the palaestra for various sports activities and
games. After exercise, they would have the dirt
and oil scraped from their bodies. Then they progressed
through three rooms of various temperature. First
they started in the tepidarium,
the warm room with heated walls and floors but without
a pool. Then they proceeded to the caldarium
for a hot bath in a small pool. They finished in
the frigidarium for a dip in the
cool pool. Other rooms provided moist steam, dry
heat (laconicum), and massage with perfumed oils.
In the end, the bathers retired to another part
of the complex for a snack, conversation, reading
etc.. .
Although wealthy Romans included a bath in their
town houses or especially in their country villas,
they loved to frequent the public bathhouses.
Acropolis
The Greek word “akro” means “top or high” and “polis”
means city. The acropolis refers to the highest,
the most defensible and sometimes fortified part
of an ancient city. It frequently held major sanctuaries
which served as the treasury and archives of the
city.
Agora
The agora was a large open square area, surrounded
by a colonnade, at the heart of the city. In early
Greek times it was used as place of public assembly.
Later it functioned as a marketplace and for commercial
intercourse. Its boundaries were defined by the
public buildings that surrounded it. It corresponded
in general with the Roman forum.
Bouleuterion
The name of this ancient Greek building type comes
from “boule” which means the “ council of the city”.
It was used to hold public meetings as the council
chamber. It was roofed and had tiers of benches
on three sides either rectangular or semicircular
in shape.
Stoa
The stoa was a long and roofed walkway or portico
along the shops at the agora. It provided space
for shops and shelter against the sun or rain. The
stoa ha sometines a second storey.
La stoa était un long passage couvert d'arcades,
le long des magasins de l'agora. La stoa procurait
un plus grand espace devant les magasins et protégeait
du soleil et de la pluie. La stoa avait parfois
deux étages.
Forum
The
forum was more than a market-place to the Roman.
With its adjuncts, of which the basilica (a large
meeting hall) was chief, it was the centre of civic
life and movement, combining the functions of market,
town hall, law courts, exchange, and a gathering-place
where the townspeople discussed matters of mutual
interest, settled points of difference, gossiped
and idled . It was a place where public notices
were displayed, and games were often held and religious
festivals celebrated. It was the rendez-vous for
all classes and for all purposes.
